Forensic Science And The Legal System Criminology Essay

forensic Science And The Legal System Criminology EssayForensic experience (often is create verbally as forensics) is the appliance of a wide range of recognitions to answer questions of evoke to a lawful system. This may be relevant to a ab affair or a civil action. Besides its relevance to a legal system, more generally forensic entropy covers the accepted scientific methodology and norms with the help of which the facts regarding an event, or an artifact, or some(a) otherwise physical item atomic number 18 established as being the case. In that regard the concept is related to the idea of authentication, where by an interest outside of a legal form exists in determining whether an object is what it wishes to be, or is alleged as being.It became much easier to solve nuisance straightaway than it was 50 years ago, because of the advances that have been made in science, or even in forensic science. In fact, new and innovative crime solving techniques are being introduced by the day to help law enforcement to solve cases that are baffling the first time. If we took a look at the role that forensics play in the fields of criminal law and rightness, we would see how master(prenominal) it is in solving crime becauseIt really helps to establish the nature of the crime There are some crimes that are accidents and others that are by design. Analyzing the bear witness with the help of a forensic microscope we see cops and others in the law enforcement area to determine if the crime was a get through, self-annihilation or other form of accidental demolition. If it is a murder, forensic manifest tells them if the crime was accidental or carried out in cold blood. Forensic science is utilize to investigate and solve burglaries, drug offenses, arsons and automobile accidents.It helps to remove personal prejudices Forensic science makes law enforcement officers to look only at the evidence and not follow cases on their instincts or their feelings. That i s why it provides a quantifiable way to solve crime, maven that fire be employ to provide cold, hard evidence that is more acceptable in courts and to juries in convicting the guilty or acquitting the spare (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2004, p. 32).It helps to bring to light evidence that is not visible to the naked center Forensic science uses a number of techniques to discover evidence that is not immediately visible. So, even in situations where it seems to be no evidence at all, a minute fingernail or a strand of hair can help nail the criminal. The methods and techniques that are used are detailed and consummate, and if done carefully and correctly, they can help to recreate the crime in laboratory settings and solve the crime.And last point and most important of all, it helps solve the crime itself Using details such(prenominal) as the time of death and other physical evidence, forensic science can tell if a person is guilty of the crime or innocent as he claims. If it is used wisely and correctly, forensic science can help convict the guilty and acquit the innocent, both of which are important when somebody is being prosecuted for a crime. Forensics makes a great comfort to those who have been affected by the crime and a valuable tool for the criminal law and justice departments in fighting crime.Forensic science extends into a lot of sub-sciences which uses natural science techniques to get relevant criminal and legal evidence (Richbourg, J., 2004, p.17).Forensic science specialties of the 21st century include Forensic Accounting This science allows receiving, examining and taking into account obtained data. Digital Forensics ( worrywise called as Computing Forensics) includes scientific methods and techniques used for search, recovery of education on digital media (pictures, e-mail). Forensic Document Examination This science allows studying, recovering and understanding the documents, making an analysis of handwriting and drawings, ch arts and graphics. M some(prenominal) studies involve a proportion of the observed document, or components of it, to a set of known standards. Forensic Economics The purchasing, researching and understanding of evidence related to economic damage, which includes determination of lost benefits and earnings, business harbor and profit loss, lost household service value, labor replacement and future medical expense costs, etc. Forensic Engineering The reconstruction, researching and explanation of structural or mechanical failure or in devices, buildings, etc. (Escholz S., 2002, p. 319). Forensic Linguistics The searching and explanation of language for use as legal evidence. Forensic fall and Cause The researching, explanation and identification of a fire for the express purpose of determining the cause of ignition and origin of the fire. Forensic Photography reconstructing, and preceding an accurate photographic reproduction of a crime scene for a courts benefit. Forensic Psy chology and Psychiatry The researching, evaluation and understanding of mentally-related illnesses and military personnel behavior for the purpose of obtaining legal evidence. Forensic Anthropology is the kind of physical anthropology, relevant to a legal situation- typically the identification and recovery of skeletonized world remains (bones). Criminalistics is the supplement of combination of clues (i.e. fingerprints imprint footgear impressions and tire tracks), ballistics, trace evidence, controlled material. Criminalistics includes clues collected from different kinds of sciences to make up ones mind the answers of questions relating to the researching and comparison of criminal investigations. This evidence is usually licked in a crime lab. Forensic biology includes testing DNA and serological tests of bodily (physiological) fluids for the purpose of individualization and identification. Helps to answer forensic questions such as paternity or maternity testing or finding a suspect at a crime scene. Forensic Entomology helps in determination of time and location of death, by studding how insects relate to human remains, and can often times determine if the body that is examined was moved after death. Forensic Geology is the kind of trace evidence found in soils, minerals and petroleum, as utilize to a legal setting (Escholz et al., 2002, p. 321 Surette, 1998.p. 194). Forensic Meteorology is an analysis of prior weather situation, specific to the site being observed. Forensic Odontology is the science about(predicate) teeth- specifically, the uniqueness of dentition. Forensic Pathology combines the spheres of medicine and pathology, determines the cause of in jury or death. Forensic Toxicology is science that helps to give the evaluation and the elucidation of the effects of poisons, chemicals, or drugs on the human body. Forensic archaeology is the example of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforce ment. Forensic psychology is the discovery of the mind of an individual, use forensic methods. Usually it deals with the circumstances behind a criminals behavior. Forensic video analysis is the scientific research, comparison, and analyzing of video in legal matters (Cather, K.H., 2004, pp.9-10). Forensic engineering is the studding and analyzing of structures and other objects to answer questions as to their failure or reason of damage. Usually such research is used to answer legal questions. Forensic limnology is the analyzing of clues gathered from crime scenes in or around fresh water sources. Revision of biological organisms, particularly diatoms, can be used in connecting suspects with victims. Forensic science is very important for policing, criminal investigations and court processes because it helps with Crime-Solving Contributions. Forensic science helps in to solving crimes through investigative activities such as determining the cause of death, identifying suspects, fi nding missing persons and pen criminals. Determining Cause of Death. Forensic pathologists determine someones reason of death by performing autopsies. During these procedures, they study fluids and tissues from a body to find out the cause of death and the manner of death. Identifying Suspects. Forensic experts can identify suspects by analyzing evidence found at the scene of a crime-such as fibers, hairs, blood and fingerprints. These methods usually are used to exonerate the innocent. Finding Missing Persons. Forensic scientists can help in finding populate who have been missing for long time using the process of image modification. Using this method, a photograph is aged to illustrate what someone may look like years after his last being seen. This is one of the tools that can be used to find criminals who have eluded justice (Cather, K.H., 2004, pp.11 Escholz et al., 2002, p. 339). Profiling Criminals. Forensic experts use profiling to help find suspects. By analyzing a crime accident, they can determine a criminals patterns and personality in an effort to narrow the suspect pool.Forensic Science is important because it helps in analyzing of forensic evidence is used in the investigation and prosecution of civil and criminal proceedings. It can help to find the guilt or innocence of possible suspects.Forensic science is in any case used to link crimes that are thought to be related to one another. For example, DNA evidence can link one offender to several crimes or crime scenes. Linking crimes can help law enforcement officers to narrow the range of possible suspects and to establish patterns of for crimes, which are useful in identifying and prosecuting suspects (Nielson Media Research, 2004, p. 26).Forensic science also workings on creating new techniques and procedures for the collection and analysis of evidence. In this meaning, new technology can be used not only to keep forensic scientist on the cutting edge of science, but also to maintain the h ighest standards of quality and accuracy.The public is primarily educated about forensic science by Hollywood films and video recording receiver shows (Barak, 1995, p. 3). Within the past ten years, the emphasis on forensics as a primary tool to solve crimes has increased significantly on broadcast television with shows like CSI. In comparison, Hollywood films have rarely featured a forensic scientist working in a lab or out in the field as a main character. Typically, the police make a stop at the crime lab to drop off or break apart up potential evidence, thus move the films investigative plot forward.Nevertheless, as depicted by the media, forensic science is a broad field estimable by both genuine forensic scientists and law enforcement investigators. In the real world, the duties of forensic specialists are normally limited to forensic science techniques however, police investigators use forensic methods on occasion (Cather, K.H., 2004, p.13)Audiences have learned about for ensics from television as well as film. Television has shown both traditional forensic science and the use of forensic science by law enforcement through news shows, documentaries, docudramas and crime dramas. These have been given much greater exposure lo the public in various television formats than Hollywood films ever did. Probably first to focus on forensic scientists were investigative news shows, such as 60 Minutes, 48 Hours, and MSNBC investigates.These often featured repugnant criminal acts that were solved through the use of forensic science evidence. During the mid 1990s, docudramas that focus on forensic scientists began to emerge. New spys, FBI Files, and Forensic Files, feature actors to recreate actual cases to depict how forensic science evidence assisted in the successful capture of offenders.Nowadays there are a lot of videos and documentary films about forensics, such as A Case of Murder, Dead Mens Tales, Killers Trail, The Case for Innocence, The Case for Innoce nce, Jeffersons Blood, The Bone Collector, Murder by Numbers, Kiss the Girls.We should also mention such great television Series with Forensic Science Elements as CSI Crime Scene Investigation, Crossing Jordan, Law and Order (Richbourg, J., 2004, p.19).We can find a lot of True life crime forensic science on television in such shows as New Detectives (Discovery Channel), Forensic Files (Court TV), I, Detective (Court TV), Cold Case Files (AE), Medical Detectives (TLC), Forensic Science (TLC), Unsolved History (Discovery).Forensic sciences spell in the limelight has given it huge honor. The TV shows like CSI Crime Scene Investigation has made students flocking to forensics courses. But while this interest is sexing up the image of scientists, it is also stopping police catching criminals and securing convictions.Young people who watch CSI believe that those scenarios, where forensic scientists are always right, are what happen in reality. It means that in court, juries are not alway s impressed with evidence presented using scientific terms. Another big problem created by media coverage of forensic science is that it informs criminals of the techniques the police use to catch them. That is why, some forensics experts are not willing to cooperate with the media (Cather, K.H., 2004, pp.13).There is an increasing amount of criminals who use plastic gloves during break-ins and condoms during rapes in order not to leave their DNA at the scene. Statistics describes a murder case in which the assailant tried to wash away his DNA using shampoo. Police say that car thieves there have started to dump backside butts from bins in stolen cars before they abandon them. None of this films or TV shows makes the forensic scientists job easier, but it probably wont prevent them fingering a suspect.As a conclusions we can say that a minority of Americas population has had no direct experience with the criminal justice system (Escholz et al., 2002, p. 328 Surette Otto, 2002, p. 450). That is why those who are called for jury duty know very little of the capabilities of the use of forensic science to resolve criminal investigations. With the media serving as a primary source of information to 95% of the public (Surette, 1998.p. 197), the reality of forensic science in the average citizens mind could be based only on the medial depictions of forensic experts.The talent of media to reach a broad audience seems to have caused a reaction by trial lawyers. For the last several years, the forensic crime drama CSI has surpassed the popularity of any other television show (Nielson Media Research. 2004). Nearly 80% of the surveyed lawyers suspected fans of forensic crime dramas have unrealistic expectations of evidence. The common belief among trial lawyers that forensic crime dramas create such unrealistic expectations seems to have resulted in several changes while preparing for trials and during criminal proceedings. First, a slight majority of the lawyers acco unt they ask jury candidates if they specifically view forensic crime dramas during voir dire. Attorneys also may be compensating for the possibility that jurors have unrealistic expectations of forensic evidence by submitting additional evidence for forensic testing. Fifty-one percent of the lawyers reported requesting some forensic tests more than they did five years ago. In contrast, prosecuting attorneys maybe requesting further forensic test because of an increased interest in matters involving forensic science by defense attorneys. For every topic of defense interest investigated by the current study, at least 59% of the lawyers reported an increase.The responses to surveys by criminal trial lawyers suggest the majority of attorneys have reacted the current popularity of forensic crime dramas. Before these findings can be accepted as a general nationwide trend, further research in multiple regions of the country is needed. Qualitative and quantitative studies should be designe d to test the findings of this study and expound upon this possibility. A not educated citizenry, weaned on media images, may serve to undermine the court process when called upon to serve as jurors. Better preparation by adjudicate and attorneys to counter such a trend is warranted.

Contemporary Business Environment

Contemporary Business Environment1. Introduction The contemporary business surround is extremely competitive and hence coping with such pressures c everys for modern marketing which can go beyond developing a good product, pricing it beautifully and making it accessible. Communicating with the present and potential s viewholders and the general public is no longer a matter of luxury but competitive necessity. Marketing gurus identical Kotler and Keller (2006) believe that every company is inevitably cast into a role of a communicator and promoter. However, the main concern in the age of technology is non how to legislate but rather what to say, to whom and how often (Kotler and Keller, 2006). This is where marketing conversations scheme comes into picture. This report will attempt to comparative analysis of Marketing Communications strategies and mix for the poop beverages in the UK. Prior to diving into the crux of the report it is essential to have a at a lower placestandin g of the modes of communication which are generally acknowledged in the communication mix to form a communication schema. Most of the experts entail five major modes of communication vis--vis Advertising, Sales promotion, Public relations and publicity, personal selling, Direct and synergistic marketing (Fill, 2006). Advertising Advertising can be defined as any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of papers, goods and services by an set sponsor (Kotler and Keller, 2006). Sales Promotion Activities included under sales promotion can be described as a variety of short-term incentives to upgrade trial or purchase of a product or service (Kotler and Keller, 2006). Public Relations and Publicity These are a set of communication programs intentional to promote and protect the companys image or its individual product (Kotler and Keller, 2006).. Personal selling These include all face-to-face interactions with one or more potential purchases with an aim of making presentations, answering questions and procuring orders (Kotler and Keller, 2006).. Direct and interactive marketing This is a product of the technology revolution and includes the use of e-mail, post, telephone, fax or inter crystallise to slip by directly with or solicit response or dialogue from specific customers and prospect (Kotler and Keller, 2006).Keeping the above descriptions in mind an analysis of the communication theory strategy employed by the lead players in the well-off-drink market can be attempted. However, any comprehensive analysis would need to follow a specific blue-print to get credibility to the conclusions drawn as a result of the analysis. The next section would provide a brief overview of the methodology employed by the actor. 2. Research Methods The methodology is a plan for collecting, organising and integrating collected data so that an give nonice result can be reached (White, 2002). In order to prepare this report the author employed both primary feather and secondary data. To begin with the report analysed the current market situation to aid a better analysis of the communications strategy employed by the companies. The data collected for this review was primarily collected from attention reports like the Keynote reports. Search string of bonkers drink industry was entered in undermentioned database Business source elite, Emerald and Ingenta Connect. Followed by a thorough industry analysis current communications strategy for Coca-cola, Pepsi and the Supermarket brands were analysed. The company websites and current adverts were the preponderant source for this information. However, Datamonitor company profiles were employed to provide reasoning for the companys choice of the strategy. Textbooks like marketing management by Kotler and Keller and the some others mentioned in the reference section at the end of the paper were employed to give a sound theoretical background to all the discussions made about the co mmunications strategies. 3. Market Overview Traditionally the soft drink market has been dominated by dickens giants ironing it out at the top vis--vis Coca-cola and Pepsi sess. snow has however been the market leader for a long time now. However, the proverbial Cola war as it has definitely not died out. According to the Keynote Drinks market review, the UK soft drinks market was worth more than 7.3bn in 2005 (Fenn, 2005). Moreover, soft drinks accounted for 30% of total commercial beverages consumption (Fenn, 2005). However, the carbonated soft drink category has experience overall softness the last several years (Phillips, 2006). The communications strategy adopted by the players in the industry would be affected substantially by the changes in the industry dynamics and the best look to take a look at the relevant changes would be to employ a PEST analysis. 2.1 PEST analysis 2.1.1 Political Government pressures led the US and the UK soft drink industry to ban fizzy sodas from Elementary schools. Political, guided by high profile figures line Californias governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, and public forces alike are force hard to extend the ban into High schools (Mercer, 2005). The Cola companies indeed need a strategy to overtake a wellnessy image. Public health advocates and health researchers in the US and the UK have proposed a consumer paid Obesity Tax on carbonated drinks in a bid to reduce consumption and fight the global epidemic that is obesity. (Datamonitor, 2006b). This would require a even more forceful pursuit to produce an image make over into s drink that does not contribute to obesity in both the male and the female arse sense of hearing. 2.1.2 Economic The 2000 US census indicated that the upper-income consumers were growing and the lower income declining rapidly, yet consistently (Ferrell and Hartline, 2005). This, in turn, lead to a trend in consumer spending and association with more luxurious things like melody. 2.1.3 Social. Most of the lifestyle changes are closely related to the quasi(prenominal) economic shifts. As mentioned above, on the one hand lifestyle awakenings towards healthier food and drink customs in developed countries possibly will hitch pro set(p)ability, on the other hand heightened consumer spending power in developing countries like India and China have paved the way for a double material body increase in international sales of soft drinks (Fenn, 2005).2.1.4 TechnologicalTechnology, today, is the single nigh imperative weapon for a firm to procure, enabling it to combat most threatening situations, ranging from reducing the cost of production to coming up with peeled-fangled healthier alternatives and novel strategies for communication. In a era where communication is a two way process, internet has helped the soft-drink industry in creating more alive(predicate)ness than ever before. 4. Analysis and DiscussionOn the basis of the industry situation entailed above the next a couple of(prenominal) sections would analyse the current communications strategy employed by Coca-Cola, Pepsi and the Supermarket brands like Tesco Cola. 4.1 Coca cola The Coca-Cola Company (Coca-Cola) manufactures markets and distributes non-alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups (Datamonitor, 2006a). The syrups, concentrates and beverage bases for Coca-Cola and nearly 400 other soft-drink brands are manufactured and sold by the Coca-Cola Company and its subsidiaries in nearly 200 countries around the world. More than 60% of its products are sold outside of the US (Datamonitor, 2006a). It is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia. The company recorded taxations of $23,104 million during the monetary year ended December 2005, an increase of 6.3% over 2004. The companys net profit was $4,872 million in fiscal year 2005, an increase of 0.5% over 2004 (Coca-Cola annual report, 2006). The company is a clear leader in the soft-drink market, especially in the UK. The European Union segm ent is the largest revenue segment of the company.Moreover, Coca-Cola is the worlds leading brand. Business-Week and Inter-brand, a branding consultancy, reckoned Coca-Cola as the leading brand in their top 100 global brands ranking in 2005 (Datamonitor, 2006a). All the above has been achieved with the aid of a very carefully planned marketing communication strategy consistently over the years. To attract younger consumers to its flagship cola, Coca-Cola launched new marketing and ad campaigns in 2003. It also changed graphics on Coke bottles and adopted a traditional look for its cans. On observing Coca-colas latest adverts and promotional activities it is clear the organisations target audience continues to be the young times. The company has a tie up with Apple computers and provides free iTunes song on every bottle cover as a promotional activity. Given the popularity of Apples iPod among the young audience a promotional collaboration with the computer giant sends a very stron g message to the consumers. The new colourful campaign labelled by the company as the coke side of life reinforces the youthful image of the brand. There has always been an attempt to create a fun image for the drink, which till now the company has managed to communicate extremely efficiently. Besides this the company has launched the new range of Coke Zero, which is an attempt to obtain the industry requirements of health conscious drinks. Although diet Coke was already present, it was predominantly communicated as a female drink. Hence to expand its target audience to include the males, Coke had to launch a new drink communicating a fresh unisex message. Another trade-mark Coca-Cola way of promoting its products has been the use of high-profile sports events to promote its brands. The company was been elect as one of the official sponsors for the FIFA World Cup 2006 in Germany, as well as the Olympics Games 2008 in Beijing, China (Datamonitor, 2006a). The company has the opport unity to use these two high-profile events to strengthen its brands even further. Hence it is quite clear the target audience for the communication strategy is the younger generation. To provide a better a betray down of the communication strategy employed by Coca-cola in terms of the communication mix is provided below. Advertising The maximum amount of investment made by the company is in this area by employing leading personalities from sports, movies and other arenas. The advertisement costs for the company have been astronomically high and it has been highly criticised for it in the chivalric (Datamonitor, 2006a). Sales Promotion There are constant offers that come with a bottle or can of coke, be it free song on iTunes or a buy one get one free offer, there is always an incentive to buy. Publicity and Public relations As mentioned earlier, Coke as a brand has been the first one to set a trend of sponsoring big occasions and creating strong opportunities for publicity. Per sonal selling and direct marketing The tho means of direct consumer interaction seems to be the internet which has a highly interactive and colourful website. Moreover, it has a barrage of competitions and opportunities to win a prize for its visitors thus providing another form of incentive. 4.2 Pepsi Cola PepsiCo is a leading global snack and beverage company. The company manufactures markets and sells a range of salty, convenient, sweet and grain-establish snacks, carbonated and non-carbonated beverages and foods (Datamonitor, 2006b). The company operates in 200 countries besides the US and Canada (Datamonitor, 2006b). It is headquartered in Purchase, New York. The company recorded revenues of $32,562 million during the fiscal year ended December 2005, an increase of 11.3% over 2004. The net profit was $4,078 million in fiscal year 2005, a decrease of 3.2% from 2004 (Datamonitor, 2006b). It is however the second-largest manufacturer of carbonated soft-drinks in the world, second only to Coca-cola. There is not much to differentiate between Pepsi and Cokes current campaign elements. The reason and timing of the launches might be different and are discussed later on in the report. Pepsi has similar to Coke made music a part of its communication strategy by joining hands with yahoo music. Although not as attractive was the Coke campaign, the message is still louder, clearer and younger than ever before. Pepsi is sponsoring and flaunting a lot of sports personalities in its adverts as well ranging from rugby to cricket. Pepsis new message says its the cola which is in synchronism with Pepsis tradition of structuring its messages to induce and assert choice over Coke. The communication mix is pretty much the same as that of Coca-cola.4.3 The Supermarket ColaSupermarket colas include the likes of Tesco, Somerfield, Lidl etc. The primary aim of these colas is to give value for the customers money, in coherence with its main business objective. All supermarket br ands have introductioned their communications strategy to achieve this main objective. For instance, the Tesco Cola would have price written on it in big font. Moreover, the label design and the content colour is similar to that of Pepsi and Coke to ensure that the customers are aware that they are getting the same product for a much more cheaper price. However, since this is not a very big segment of revenues for these supermarkets, specific communications establish on promoting these drinks are not found. 4.4 Discussion Based on the above analysis a few crucial issues need be discussed to provide a deeper insight into the choice of the communications strategy chosen by each of the organisations.4.4.1 Target Audience It is apparent from the above analysis that the communications strategy of all the trinity organisations is primarily based on identifying the target audience i.e. market segmentation. This could be a broad category based like the younger generation in case of Coke a nd Pepsi or a people shopping at the supermarkets in case of Tesco cola or other supermarket brands. The fundamental idea is to perform an image analysis and choose a communication strategy which would define a desired image (could be different from the present one). Moreover, this would also differ from product to product i.e. a diet coke is targeted more at the health conscious women. The current communication strategies in all three instances above seem to be hitting their target, however Coke as usual seems to be pulling out the best suited tricks with Pepsi just following suit i.e. taking music on board the communication strategy with iTunes seems to have boosted Cokes position much more while Pepsis association with yahoo music came only as an after thought. 4.4.2 Communication objectiveIn cokes case the objective seems to be to maintain its strong brand identity and constantly reincarnate it to keep the youthful feeling going. Since Coke is the market leader the communicatio n objective does not have to attempt to change either the cognitive, affective or behavioural responses from its consumers. Pepsi on the other hand seems to be attempting to generate a liking among its target audience and capture Cokes share of the market. However, this does not seems to be operative evident in Pepsis decreasing sales in the UK and the US (Datamonitor, 2006b). As far as the Supermarket brands are concerned Tesco colas communication objective is quite dandy forward i.e. inducing preference among its customers to buy its product over the bigger brands by keeping the prices low and providing more value for money to its customers. 4.4.3 Message design The message design needs to reflect the communication object and appeal to the target audience. Cokes latest message says the coke side of life, while Pepsi has been trying to flirt its customers by its the cola and the supermarket colas attempt to design the bottles similar to that of the bigger brands and add the wor d value to the label. The messages from each of the three players seem to be in synchrony with their objectives, Cokes message design seems to have the right emotional selling proposition (ESP). 4.4.4 Message sourceThe message for Pepsi and Coke are delivered by attractive and fit people predominantly from the sporting arena. This again reinforces the health conscious image of the new drinks like Coke Zero. Moreover these are both male as well as female promoting zero calorie drink to expand the target audience from women to include men. However, how much the consumers trust the credibility of the people who communicate these messages to them remains to be seen. The supermarket Colas dont have to use these as their primary aim is to communicate to the consumer that it is a cheaper alternative and it is cheap because of meagre expenses in advertising. 4.4.5 Communication bringConsidering the size of the target audience the mode of communication chosen by Pepsi and Coke are justifie d i.e. the main channel of communication is television and internet. Adverts in papers, magazines and streets are commonly employed as well. However, the most cost intensive means is the television with each advert requiring a gargantuan amount of money. As mentioned earlier the supermarket brands cannot afford a high communication budget on solely marketing the colas especially at the price they need to sell it for. 5 Conclusion and Recommendations Taking into consideration all the points discussed above it can be concluded that the current communication strategy and mix employed by the organisations under scrutiny are a result of the changes in their external environment and are in synchrony with their apparent communication objectives. However, overall degree of set exerted by the Pepsi communication message seems to be lower than its arch rival. While a consumer survey would be required to add credibility to the above recital the analysis and discussion do provide a useful ins ight into the communication strategy formulation process and the choice of the communication mix based on which few recommendations can be made. Identifying the target audience is the most crucial step towards developing an effective communication strategy. Moreover, while identifying the target audience and developing communication objectives the marketer needs to ensure that any gap between the current public perception and the image sought are covered. When deciding the marketing communication mix a cost benefit analysis of each tool needs to be done to ensure that the most effective strategy is produced within optimum budget. It is imperative to measure the marketing communication effectiveness by asking the target audience to recall the message, frequency etc in order to make any effective changes to an existing strategy.

Equal Opportunities for Women in Management Positions

Equal Opportunities for Wo custody in vigilance PositionsWomen in ManagementThis report looks at the issue of women in watchfulness deep rectify the monetary service sector, focusing on in gamey up spirits street deposits in the coupled Kingdom, in the context of use of addressing the issue of gender favoritism deep down elapse way. This is done by looking at preceding(a) and familiarise published piece of musics that revolve slightly the subject matter under(a)(a) a theoretical hypothesis. The theoretical hypothesis, which is based on published material on women in perplexity, is apply to explain the issues meet women in way. Three high street banks were assessed as example studies to identify the issue of gender discrimination at bottom UK banks. The outcomes be to a fault categorised under specific themes. Fin twainy a critical review of matches and mismatches is used to comp be and contrast similarities between the theoretical hypothesis and the se miempirical evidence gathered for this paper.Chapter 1 The Concept of Women In ManagementSince the end of the Second World War, brasss all everywhere the world pay been slow to recognize the importance of women in the cultivation and mental synthesis of strong upstanding lead from deep down. This has raised serious issues with sham to top direction revealicularly in spite of appearance the fiscal service sectors, existence virile person dominated, non allowing women into shoess of authority, or top heed.Although, organisations all over the world lease remindd on since then, and there substantiate been positive results so far in todays juvenile day society, however the relative percentage of women in relation to men in top circumspection positions let off rebrinys unsolved. In the linked Kingdom, trusted sectors front to confine made substantial growth with regard to addressing these issues, e.g. the financial sectors, and the health and friendly service s. However, this is not the gaucherie crosswise the whole spectrum of job sectors. E.g. the military, mathematical product services, distri exclusivelyion, Information and communicating technology, and agriculture.Aims and ObjectivesThe aim of this paper is to address the issue of top counselling, which is predominantly potent dominated, inwardly the financial services sector allowing and encouraging women to progress into focusing positions in their field of expertise. I.e. Understanding the riddles associated with women breaking through the film over ceiling into top oversight within the financial services sector.The objective of this query is to first provide a detailed analysis of the theoretical aspects that women face when it comes to stepping into management positions within banks in the fall in Kingdom. Secondly, to agnize the processes and mechanisms that argon inherent within financial organisations that slowdown the pace of women into management positions. Th irdly, to highlight the issue of gender discrimination associated with the latter mentioned. Lastly, I leave critically appraise the validity of published material so far covering women in management in the context of equal opportunity policies and negotiable litigate patterns.Chapter 2 Existing writings ReviewedOver the past 50 historic period gender inequalities i.e. women in management, particularly within the UK banking sector has been the subject of bureaucratic exam to a true degree. For good exampleful Crompton (1989)states that UK banks have increasingly become the major employers of fe priapic labour. However, women in banks have not historically had the equal c beer opportunities as men, for a variety of reasons, ranging from hand anthropoid exclusion practices to the unordered and often short-term nature of many womens belong histories.Additionally, the contrast between the experiences of men and women in the same dividing roue is used to question the con ventional view of occupational class analysis, where the (male) occupational structure is treated as if it were the class structure. Rutherfords (1999) eggshell study of banking, also illust grade how the discourses of gendered bio system of logical and psychological difference might be used to justify the scarcity of women in management grades and in so doing reproduce the status quo of male domination.After all, if women were not suited to management in banking what would be the point of creating policies to attempt to improve their delegacy there? thus jobs become infused with stereotyped characteristics, which argon believed to be linked to gender, race (Liff and Dickens, 2000) and to round extent age. Alvesson and Billing (1997) talks about the pressures for homogeneity and cultural competent conduct. This involves individuals, consciously or unconsciously, conforming and adapting to organisational norms in order to fit in or progress their c bers, for example by adopting the expected and desired language, work style, appearance and so on.The demand for cultural competence reinforces and reproduces the dominant, from which those who do not comply, or conform, remain excluded. Collin son (1990) argues about the cultural assumptions underlying male managers stereotypes of male and female attri providedes. He states that when evaluating male crowd outdidates, involvement in sport was a definite advantage, whereas females sporting achievements we reread as indicative of a very pin down existence. Another example was behaviour of men which was described as pushy when exhibited by female candidate and as showing initiative when a male candidate was involved.Thus women were slight likely to be recruited to what were viewed as gender-incongruent jobs. It must also be recognised that constitution set outes, which focus on certain groups of employees close typically women and ethnic minorities, turn tail to engender employee resentment (Cockburn, 199 1 Miller and Rowney, 1999). Webb (1997) adds that ironically the radical feminist agenda, which asserts womens differences from men and their potential for creating a recrudesce world, had been adequate to the engrosss of liberal feminism with providing rule for the promotion of women in management, on the grounds that womens nurturing capacities contribute to the diversity require by post-modern organisations.Webb (1997) goes on to state that we use up to move beyond the blushtually limiting debate about whether women atomic numerate 18 the same as or distinguishable from men to a renewed concern with the material conditions of womens lives and with the braid of equality initiatives which address the move exclusion of many women from adequate standards of living. Rees (1998) argues that relative strenuous efforts to tackle discrimination and disadvantage within the organisation atomic number 18 hampered by structural inequalities at societal level, in particular the i nterrelationship between education, training and workout. The continued existence of social inequalities could be said to indicate that as a society we are not yet ensnare to value gender diversity, or ethnic diversity, adopting the language will not trustworthyise it happen.However, this should not be used as an excuse for organisational inertia or fatalism. Businesses have social responsibilities (one of these is to treat employees fairly) and they also have a shoot for social legitimacy in order to survive in the longer term (Miller and Rowney, 1999). This would point to need for organisations to value workforce diversity, irrespective of the leveraging of short-term solutions. Sisson (1995) also adds that the problem with regard to women in management within the UK banking exertion is that most organisations are predominantly concerned with the bottom line, short-term positivity and this orientation militates a fightst long-term agendas.This renders it all the more im portant that the retrograde step of abandoning or neglecting equal opportunity policy should be avoided. Dickens (1994) argues that there is not a moving in case but a series of business rationales that are contingent. Organizational and managerial receptiveness to them is uneven, and they lead to only selective action. He goes on to state that the business case carrot helpings a similar indistinctness to the legal compliance stick. Calls for action beyond the individual organisation in a multi-pronged approach requiring state action, in which equality legislation and business case rationales each have apart to play.Chapter 3 look into burn down and Methodology EmployedResearch ApproachThe look approach will be carried out using the rationalist case research approach. According to Cavite (1996), positivist epistemology tries to understand a social setting by identifying individual components of a phenomenon and explains the phenomenon in terms of constructs and relationships between constructs. The theoretical constructs describing the phenomenon are considered to be distinct from empirical reality. Hence, empirical observations can be used to test theory. This looks at the world as external and objective. Positivism employs four major research evaluation criteria a good research should make controlled observations, should be able to be replicated should be generalizable and should use formal logic.Under positivism, case research findings are not statistically generalizable to a population, as the case or cases cannot be considered representative of a population, however, case research can call theoretical generalizability.This will also accommodate comparing, contrasting and critically evaluating past and present papers, articles, journals, and established theories that have been published on the subject matter.Methodology EmployedMultiple-Case Study DesignThis project uses the nine-fold case study manner in order to enable analysis of info cross ways cases and relating it to the theoretical perspectives in the uncommitted literature of Information system of ruless strategy. This enables the tec to verify that findings are not merely the result of idiosyncrasies of research setting (Miles andHuberman, 1984). According to Yin (1994), in such a method it is important to use tenfold sources of evidence. Due to the era coyness attached with this paper, only three case studies of Women in management within the UK banking sector were gathered. The appropriate number of cases depends, firstly, on how often is k instantlyn about the phenomenon subsequently studying a case and secondly, on how much new information is likely to emerge from studying further cases(Eisenhardt, 1997).The paper provides three case studies of UK high street banks namely HSBC, NatWest Bank, and Lloyds TSB. equivalence and contrasting the divisions of the women who are in the top management in these banks.Qualitative DataCavite (1996) states that qua litative investigation refers to di relieveing meaning and misgiving from a phenomenon and is not primarily concerned with measuring and quantification of the phenomenon. Direct and in-depth knowledge of a research setting are necessity to achieve contextual judgement. Hence, qualitative methods are associated with face-to-face contact with persons in the research setting, with verbal data being gathered.Qualitative data can be collected in a number of forms. One major form of qualitative evidence is interviews, which may be get intoed and later transcribed. Qualitative data are rich, full, holistic real their face validity awaits impeachable they preserve chronological flow where that is important.In spite of the above mentioned, qualitative data have weaknesses (Miles1979 Miles and Huberman, 1984). compile and analysing data is time-consuming and demanding. In addition, data analysis is not easy, as qualitative data analysis methods are not sound established. Recognised rul es of logic can be utilise to verbal data in order to make sense of the evidence and to formally analyse the data.Rubin and Rubin (1995) state that it is most preferred to disclose the identities of both(prenominal) the case and the individuals interviewed because, The reader is able to recall any other forward information he or she may have in condition(p) about the same case from previous research or other sources in reading and interpreting the case announce. The entire case can be reviewed more readily, so that footnotes and citations can be checked, if necessary, and appropriate criticisms can be raised about the published case.Nevertheless, there are some occasions when namelessness is necessary. The most common rationale is that when the case study has been on controversial topic, anonymity serves to protect the real case and its real participants. The second reason is that the matter of the final case report may affect the subsequent actions of those that were studie d.In the case of this paper, the positions of the participants within the organisations interviewed are mentioned. However, anonymity is adopted to protect the Identities of the participants and the real case. why? Because the issue of women in management within Banks in the UK has been a long standing problem, in which revealing their names could hinder future revelations on their part and their jobs.The remainder of this paper effect as followsChapter 4 Theoretical guess on Women in ManagementChapter 5 Empirical Analysis (Three Banks)Chapter 6 Comparing and contrasting Theoretical Hypothesis and Empirical AnalysisChapter 7 Summary and Conclusion.Chapter 4 Theoretical Hypothesis of Women In ManagementIn order to have a clear understanding of women in management, we will first need to identify the meaning attached to this phenomenon. Since the mid 1990s, womens representation amongst executives has doubled and amongst accompany directors it has tripled. At the same time there has been an overall increase in women working in management jobs. However, women still comprise less than a puff of executives and only one in ten company directors. The glass ceiling, the situation where women can see but not reach higher level jobs and so are prevented from progressing in their careers, appears still to exist in many organisations.This is what led to the creation of the terminology women in management. Several key factors tarradiddle for the continuing low representation of women in management. Firstly, like most other occupations, there is a scarperency for some types of management jobs to be associated with either women or men. For example, whilst women are comparatively well represented in personnel and the public sector, men still predominate in production management and Information and communication technology. Secondly, opportunities to work half-time are limited, with only six present of managers and superior officials employed part-time. Although it may be difficult to bind out some management functions on a part-time basis, there are still far too few opportunities for flexible working at senior levels in organisations.With this in mind, we can now move on to discuss the theoretical perspectives of women in management.There are several already established theoretical perspectives that have been used to gather a better understanding of this issue, however, the ones used in this paper are1) Issues and problems facing women reach the top (manager) 2) Why so few women stretchability the top? 3) Why are women workers still going sixpenny? 4) What causes the gender founder gap? 5) baffle women achieved equality in the UK banking pains?4.1 Issues and problems facing women reaching the top (manager)Several factors invoice for the continuing low representation of women reaching the top. One of the key issues is that women consider family obligations and the pre authorisation of male values in bodily culture to be the main obstacles to career emanation for them. The nature of the obstacles blocking womens progress to higher management varies, however, from those encountered at lower levels. Higher rank female bank managers reckon to experience discrimination to a great extent, both on terms of structural and cultural barriers, where insufficient personal contacts and dominance of male values adversely affect their advancement.The difficulties women face in reaching the top is also reflected in the higher levels of education and effort often demanded of them. The overleap facing women aspiring to management jobs can be so formidable that they sometimes abandon efforts to make it to the top of large firms. They often take their capacity and know-how to smaller and more flexible companies or set up their own businesses.Another principal constraint on the level and type of labour trade participation of women is the responsibility they range for raising children and performing phratry tasks. An important fe ature of professional and especially managerial work is the extended working hours that seem to be required to gain recognition and eventual promotion. It can be practically impossible to reconcile the long hours often required of management stave with the amount of time needed to care for a home and children, not to mention care of the elderly. Yet the availability of part-time managerial work varies across organisations. Women who desire both a family and a career often juggle heavy responsibilities in both domains. Those who opt for part-time work early in their careers may find their advancement hampered, even after a return to full-time employment, since their male counterparts will have invested heavily in career building during the same period.4.2 Why so few women reaching the top?Few women gain access to the highest positions as executive heads of organizations and, despite some improvements, many would claim that the pace of change is still far too slow given the large num ber of qualified women in the labour market today. Where figures are available (ILO data, 2002), they show women holding from 1 present to 5percent of top executive positions. While it must be acknowledged that time is still needed for women at petty(prenominal) and center(a) management levels(those in the pipeline) to move into executive positions, the fact still clay that women are not moving quickly enough nor insufficient come into line or strategic positions.Yet this factories crucial for enlarging the pool of women aspiring to senior positions and for building a critical mass of senior women for networking and providing voice models for those down the line. Speeding up womens movement towards the top requires that recruitment and promotion methods be objective and fair. Above all, there has to be awareness and commitment from directors of companies as to the benefits for their organizations from promoting women to high-level managerial positions. Women seem to experience the most difficulty in obtaining executive jobs in large corporations, even though they often have greater opportunities at junior and middle management levels in these same corporations.Another reason for this purge is the educational attainment required for top management positions. secern provided byte Equal opportunities Commission in the United Kingdom suggest that, in some cases women do not have the educational qualifications to get into management positions, and even when that is not the case, they still do find it hard to break into management, due to the fact that its predominantly male dominated. Another reason is that few senior women are in the so called line positions that involve profit and loss or tax income generating responsibilities, and which are critical for advancement to the highest level. Additionally, in the United Kingdom, the share of women among financial managers arise from 11 present to 17percent in the 1980s and still increasing, although they are s till outnumbered by men in top management positions in the twenty-first century.4.3 Why are women workers still going cheap?Much of womens work has historically tended to be undervalued or unrecognized. While the United Nations system and governments are making more authoritative efforts to value and account for womens work in national statistics, research on women in management is a comparatively new field and similaritys over time and across countries are limited. This is further made complicated by the range of definitions employed and the non-availability of statistics for different countries overtime. Under a report provided by the United Nations in 1996 called the Human development report, it states that no society treats its women as well as men.A gender related to development index was created to record achievements and monitor progress. This is based on aliveness forecast, educational attainment and income, but adjusts the latter mentioned for gender equality. They no ted that vitality expectancy rates are positively affected by care in different forms, such as social support and social relationships. For example, unmarried adults have higher mortality rates than married ones and, according to them, children in a caring environment fare better in terms of health than those who neediness this attention. It is not only the weak and sick that need care to prosper even the healthiest of adults need a certain amount of care.A deficit in care services not only destroys human development, but it also undermines economic growth. That these factors are overlooked has considerable implications for gender equality, as women still carry the main responsibility for care. gender discrimination is perpetuated through the lack of value placed on womens caring role in society. As managers, women are affected byte common assumption that in the event of building families they will bear the main burden of responsibility arising out of this. Thus, there is not the same degree of investment in women. They are less likely to receive the same encouragement or career advice through mentoring as men.Another important factor is that in some countries equal opportunity policies tend to be established within organizations, however, in some countries they are not strictly adhered to. In the Ukase scheme known as Opportunity 2000 was launched in 2000. Its member included 300 organizations ranging from the financial services to the educational departments. They agreed to increase the number of women into management positions, and between 1994 to 2000, womens share of management positions increased from 25 present to 35 present. Therefore, one can say although women are still going cheap in certain jobs in other parts of the world this is not the case universally.4.4 What causes the gender pay gap?A difference in management positions does tend to contribute to net income differentials. Although rates of pay may be similar, actual earnings can vary becau se of the different salary packages offered to managers, which provide motley fringe benefits and access to certain schemes for boosting bonuses. Earnings gaps may also reflect differences in seniority and concentration of women in low-paid managerial sub-groups. Additionally, certain jobs tend to be affiliated with men and to women, i.e. productions and manufacturing jobs tend to be affiliated with men, while nursing, and household jobs tend to be affiliated with women, this contributes to the pay gap between men and women. inwardly the Banking sector in the United Kingdom, there has been an increase of the number of women into both middle and top management. However, the positions they tend to head are not profit-making positions or revenue generating positions, which are positions of higher pay and responsibility. They tend to be based within the retail, customer services, and bookkeeping departments, which are areas of significance to the organization, but are of less repute.4. 5 Have women achieved equality in the UK banking industry?In the area of finance, women have certainly increased their share of management positions, although at a varying pace. In the United Kingdom, the share of women among financial managers rose from 11 present to 17 present during the 1980s and at the turn of the century increased to 25 present. While women have captured an ever-increasing share of the labour market, improvements in the quality of womens jobs have not kept pace. This is reflected in the smaller representation of women in management positions, particularly in the private sector, and their virtual absence from most senior jobs, i.e. Directorships, or Presidents of Banks.Wage differentials in male and female managerial jobs stem from the reality that even when women hold management jobs, they are often in less strategic lower-paying areas oaf companys operations. They are also linked to the fact that women managers tend to be younger on average, as most senior jo bs tend to be dominated by older men. Despite the persistent inequalities at managerial level, the incessant entry of women into higher-level jobs is being turn to however, they still remain under-represented in senior management.With few exceptions, the main challenge appears tube the sheer slowness in the in the progress of women into senior leadership positions in organizations, which suggests that discrimination is greatest where the most power is exercised. However, the growth in entrepreneurship and increasing numbers of women running their own businesses, both large and small, heralds a different future for societies. The economic power gained by women will play a key role in the struggle to tangle aside gender inequalities in all walks of life in which the UK banking sector is no exception.Chapter 5 Empirical AnalysisIn this chapter I present (3)case descriptions from my research on Women in management within the Banking Sector. The descriptions are organised in terms of the following headings Continuity and counterchange in Womens twentieth century in comparison to now experience, the position of women in the financial industry in general, the position of women in the UK banking sector, the changing role of women in the UK banking sector, pay differentials, women broken through glass ceiling, employment law and maternity sound, and balancing work and family responsibilities. Due to the short timespan to collect data and incorporate to this paper I have been limited to three UK high street banks.The names of the individuals interviewed are not mentioned to protect confidentiality. It must be said that there are some differences in the both the quality and mensuration of data available between the cases described, but in each case there is sufficient data for comparability across the features mentioned above. Women managers or the most senior of positions with regard to women in the three high street banks are analysed to address the issue of wome n in management. See Appendix A for the questions used. All interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes.5.1 Case Study 1 Natwest BankContinuity and Change in Womens twentieth century in comparison to now experienceThe cleaning lady interviewed was the manager of the branch. She is responsible for 25 people in the branch. She argues that in the past there were no female managers, most women, were household wives and lacked career progression. She believes that a get by has changed over the past 20 years and that within the bank a dish of progress has been made with regard to women into management positions. Additionally, she states that there is a continuing need to have women in management positions because it depicts the bank as being an equal opportunities bank.The position of women in the financial industry in generalShe argues that they are a lot more women in Finance ministries, central banks, and banking supervisory agencies, which are among the most important political insti tutions with regard to the coordination and regulation of the financial system than the case maybe in the past.The position of women in UK banking sectorShe states that although there has been a huge increase in the number of women in management positions within the bank, relative to male managers, it is small percentage that are in this category compared to over 50 years ago.The changing role of women in the UK banking sectorShe believes that the role of women in the bank has changed over the years. In the past women within the bank were more concentrated in the retail department, but more and more women are going into the trading of stocks and products which are revenue generating departments within the bank. cede DifferentialShe states categorically, that she is quite happy and capacitance with how much she is being paid and comparing herself to her male counterpart sat other branches of the bank, there isnt a difference with regard other pay package (its the same).Women broken through glass ceilingShe believes that within NatWest bank the case of women breaking through the glass ceiling is not an issue. As far as she is concerned if you have the right qualifications and attributes, you will make it through regardless of gender differences.Employment law and Maternity rightShe argues that there are policies within the bank that ensures equal opportunities for both male and female employees to get into top management. And that women are encouraged to take maternity leave if needs be, and when they are ready to come back to their previous position the job would still be there. Flexible part-time work is available for those who fall under this category she says. equilibrate work and FamilyFor the hours she whole kit and caboodle, it could affect family life being the manager of the branch, however, for the top directors within the bank the want staff to have a good work and family life balance. They do encourage women, if they need to go out on maternity lea ve and come back to their previous job.5.2 Case Study 2 Hong-Kong and nobble Banking CorporationContinuity and Change in Womens twentieth century in comparison to now experienceThe Woman interviewed was the branch counsellor (Customer services/accounts) she is the most senior char (retail). She is responsible for 5 people. She argues that in the Bank there were few female managers compared to their male counterparts. Although she believes a lot has changed over the years with regard to women getting into management positions, she states that due to the lack of proper qualifications and starting a family, women have not in general been able to move into management positions.The position of women in financial industry in generalShe argues that there are not enough women in the financial industry. She acknowledges that there have been improvements but that there is still barrier.The position of women in the UK banking sectorShe believes that only the determined ones (women) get throu gh. However, from heron knowledge of the bank, there are not a lot of women in top management positions.The changing role of women in the UK banking sectorThe branch counsellor states that when a woman says she works in a bank it would be depicted that she works as a secretary. This is due to the lack of qualifications and top management being male dominated, the role of women within the bank has remained static.Pay DifferentialShe states that there are certain grades within the bank and each and every person is categorised into one of those grades. The salary band is applied in that manner. She states that for the job responsibilities, she is quite content and happy with what she is being paid, however there is still need for improvement.Women broken through glass ceilingShe argues that there is a glass ceiling within the bank and women can only go so far. She adds that women tend to leave to have children and look after the home. Also, she says that there are gender diversity poli cies within the bank, but they are not adhered to from top management.Employment law and maternity rightWithin the bank there is policy that allows for part-time flexible work patterns. Legally, they have to keep the position for you, if for example you left to have baby.Equal Opportunities for Women in Management PositionsEqual Opportunities for Women in Management PositionsWomen in ManagementThis paper looks at the issue of women in management within the financial services sector, focusing on high street banks in the United Kingdom, in the context of addressing the issue of gender discrimination within top management. This is done by looking at past and present published papers that revolve around the subject matter under a theoretical hypothesis. The theoretical hypothesis, which is based on published material on women in management, is used to explain the issues surrounding women in management. Three high street banks were assessed as case studies to identify the issue of gender discrimination within UK banks. The outcomes are also categorised under specific themes. Finally a critical review of matches and mismatches is used to compare and contrast similarities between the theoretical hypothesis and the empirical evidence gathered for this paper.Chapter 1 The Concept of Women In ManagementSince the end of the Second World War, organisations all over the world have been slow to recognize the importance of women in the development and building of strong solid leadership from within. This has raised serious issues with regard to top management particularly within the financial services sectors, being male dominated, not allowing women into positions of authority, or top management.Although, organisations all over the world have moved on since then, and there have been positive results so far in todays modern day society, however the relative percentage of women in relation to men in top management positions still remains unsolved. In the United Kingdom, certa in sectors seem to have made substantial progress with regard to addressing these issues, e.g. the financial sectors, and the health and social services. However, this is not the case across the whole spectrum of job sectors. E.g. the military, production services, distribution, Information and communication technology, and agriculture.Aims and ObjectivesThe aim of this paper is to address the issue of top management, which is predominantly male dominated, within the financial services sector allowing and encouraging women to progress into management positions in their field of expertise. I.e. Understanding the problems associated with women breaking through the glass ceiling into top management within the financial services sector.The objective of this research is to first provide a detailed analysis of the theoretical aspects that women face when it comes to stepping into management positions within banks in the United Kingdom. Secondly, to understand the processes and mechanisms that are inherent within financial organisations that slowdown the pace of women into management positions. Thirdly, to highlight the issue of gender discrimination associated with the latter mentioned. Lastly, I will critically appraise the validity of published material so far covering women in management in the context of equal opportunity policies and flexible work patterns.Chapter 2 Existing Literature ReviewedOver the past 50 years gender inequalities i.e. women in management, particularly within the UK banking sector has been the subject of bureaucratic scrutiny to a certain degree. For example Crompton (1989)states that UK banks have increasingly become the major employers of female labour. However, women in banks have not historically had the same career opportunities as men, for a variety of reasons, ranging from deliberate male exclusion practices to the broken and often short-term nature of many womens work histories.Additionally, the contrast between the experiences of men and women in the same occupation is used to question the conventional view of occupational class analysis, where the (male) occupational structure is treated as if it were the class structure. Rutherfords (1999) case study of banking, also illustrates how the discourses of gendered biological and psychological difference might be used to justify the scarcity of women in management grades and in so doing reproduce the status quo of male domination.After all, if women were not suited to management in banking what would be the point of creating policies to attempt to improve their representation there? Thus jobs become infused with stereotyped characteristics, which are believed to be linked to gender, race (Liff and Dickens, 2000) and to some extent age. Alvesson and Billing (1997) talks about the pressures for homogeneity and cultural competent behaviour. This involves individuals, consciously or unconsciously, conforming and adapting to organisational norms in order to fit in or progress their careers, for example by adopting the expected and desired language, work style, appearance and so on.The demand for cultural competence reinforces and reproduces the dominant, from which those who do not comply, or conform, remain excluded. Collin son (1990) argues about the cultural assumptions underlying male managers stereotypes of male and female attributes. He states that when evaluating male candidates, involvement in sport was a definite advantage, whereas females sporting achievements we reread as indicative of a very narrow existence. Another example was behaviour of men which was described as pushy when exhibited by female candidate and as showing initiative when a male candidate was involved.Thus women were less likely to be recruited to what were viewed as gender-incongruent jobs. It must also be recognised that policy approaches, which focus on certain groups of employees most typically women and ethnic minorities, tend to engender employee resentment (C ockburn, 1991 Miller and Rowney, 1999). Webb (1997) adds that ironically the radical feminist agenda, which asserts womens differences from men and their potential for creating a better world, had been adapted to the concerns of liberal feminism with providing rationale for the promotion of women in management, on the grounds that womens nurturing capacities contribute to the diversity needed by post-modern organisations.Webb (1997) goes on to state that we need to move beyond the ultimately limiting debate about whether women are the same as or different from men to a renewed concern with the material conditions of womens lives and with the construction of equality initiatives which address the continuing exclusion of many women from adequate standards of living. Rees (1998) argues that relative strenuous efforts to tackle discrimination and disadvantage within the organisation are hampered by structural inequalities at societal level, in particular the interrelationship between ed ucation, training and employment. The continued existence of social inequalities could be said to indicate that as a society we are not yet ready to value gender diversity, or ethnic diversity, adopting the language will not make it happen.However, this should not be used as an excuse for organisational inertia or fatalism. Businesses have social responsibilities (one of these is to treat employees fairly) and they also have a need for social legitimacy in order to survive in the longer term (Miller and Rowney, 1999). This would point to need for organisations to value workforce diversity, irrespective of the purchase of short-term solutions. Sisson (1995) also adds that the problem with regard to women in management within the UK banking industry is that most organisations are predominantly concerned with the bottom line, short-term profitability and this orientation militates against long-term agendas.This renders it all the more important that the retrograde step of abandoning or neglecting equal opportunity policy should be avoided. Dickens (1994) argues that there is not a business case but a series of business rationales that are contingent. Organizational and managerial receptiveness to them is uneven, and they lead to only selective action. He goes on to state that the business case carrot shares a similar weakness to the legal compliance stick. Calls for action beyond the individual organisation in a multi-pronged approach requiring state action, in which equality legislation and business case rationales each have apart to play.Chapter 3 Research Approach and Methodology EmployedResearch ApproachThe research approach will be carried out using the positivist case research approach. According to Cavite (1996), positivist epistemology tries to understand a social setting by identifying individual components of a phenomenon and explains the phenomenon in terms of constructs and relationships between constructs. The theoretical constructs describing the ph enomenon are considered to be distinct from empirical reality. Hence, empirical observations can be used to test theory. This looks at the world as external and objective. Positivism employs four major research evaluation criteria a good research should make controlled observations, should be able to be replicated should be generalizable and should use formal logic.Under positivism, case research findings are not statistically generalizable to a population, as the case or cases cannot be considered representative of a population, however, case research can claim theoretical generalizability.This will also include comparing, contrasting and critically evaluating past and present papers, articles, journals, and established theories that have been published on the subject matter.Methodology EmployedMultiple-Case Study DesignThis project uses the multiple case study method in order to enable analysis of data across cases and relating it to the theoretical perspectives in the available l iterature of Information systems strategy. This enables the researcher to verify that findings are not merely the result of idiosyncrasies of research setting (Miles andHuberman, 1984). According to Yin (1994), in such a method it is important to use multiple sources of evidence. Due to the time constraint attached with this paper, only three case studies of Women in management within the UK banking sector were gathered. The appropriate number of cases depends, firstly, on how much is known about the phenomenon after studying a case and secondly, on how much new information is likely to emerge from studying further cases(Eisenhardt, 1997).The paper provides three case studies of UK high street banks namely HSBC, NatWest Bank, and Lloyds TSB. Comparing and contrasting the roles of the women who are in the top management in these banks.Qualitative DataCavite (1996) states that qualitative investigation refers to distilling meaning and understanding from a phenomenon and is not primari ly concerned with measuring and quantification of the phenomenon. Direct and in-depth knowledge of a research setting are necessary to achieve contextual understanding. Hence, qualitative methods are associated with face-to-face contact with persons in the research setting, with verbal data being gathered.Qualitative data can be collected in a number of forms. One major form of qualitative evidence is interviews, which may be recorded and later transcribed. Qualitative data are rich, full, holistic real their face validity seems impeachable they preserve chronological flow where that is important.In spite of the above mentioned, qualitative data have weaknesses (Miles1979 Miles and Huberman, 1984). Collecting and analysing data is time-consuming and demanding. In addition, data analysis is not easy, as qualitative data analysis methods are not well established. Recognised rules of logic can be applied to verbal data in order to make sense of the evidence and to formally analyse the data.Rubin and Rubin (1995) state that it is most desirable to disclose the identities of both the case and the individuals interviewed because, The reader is able to recall any other previous information he or she may have learned about the same case from previous research or other sources in reading and interpreting the case report. The entire case can be reviewed more readily, so that footnotes and citations can be checked, if necessary, and appropriate criticisms can be raised about the published case.Nevertheless, there are some occasions when anonymity is necessary. The most common rationale is that when the case study has been on controversial topic, anonymity serves to protect the real case and its real participants. The second reason is that the issuance of the final case report may affect the subsequent actions of those that were studied.In the case of this paper, the positions of the participants within the organisations interviewed are mentioned. However, anonymity is ad opted to protect the Identities of the participants and the real case. Why? Because the issue of women in management within Banks in the UK has been a long standing problem, in which revealing their names could hinder future revelations on their part and their jobs.The remainder of this paper proceeds as followsChapter 4 Theoretical Hypothesis on Women in ManagementChapter 5 Empirical Analysis (Three Banks)Chapter 6 Comparing and contrasting Theoretical Hypothesis and Empirical AnalysisChapter 7 Summary and Conclusion.Chapter 4 Theoretical Hypothesis of Women In ManagementIn order to have a clear understanding of women in management, we will first need to identify the meaning attached to this phenomenon. Since the mid 1990s, womens representation amongst executives has doubled and amongst company directors it has tripled. At the same time there has been an overall increase in women working in management jobs. However, women still comprise less than a quarter of executives and only o ne in ten company directors. The glass ceiling, the situation where women can see but not reach higher level jobs and so are prevented from progressing in their careers, appears still to exist in many organisations.This is what led to the creation of the terminology women in management. Several key factors account for the continuing low representation of women in management. Firstly, like most other occupations, there is a tendency for some types of management jobs to be associated with either women or men. For example, whilst women are comparatively well represented in personnel and the public sector, men still predominate in production management and Information and communication technology. Secondly, opportunities to work part-time are limited, with only six present of managers and senior officials employed part-time. Although it may be difficult to carry out some management functions on a part-time basis, there are still far too few opportunities for flexible working at senior l evels in organisations.With this in mind, we can now move on to discuss the theoretical perspectives of women in management.There are several already established theoretical perspectives that have been used to gather a better understanding of this issue, however, the ones used in this paper are1) Issues and problems facing women reaching the top (manager) 2) Why so few women reaching the top? 3) Why are women workers still going cheap? 4) What causes the gender pay gap? 5) Have women achieved equality in the UK banking industry?4.1 Issues and problems facing women reaching the top (manager)Several factors account for the continuing low representation of women reaching the top. One of the key issues is that women consider family obligations and the predominance of male values in corporate culture to be the main obstacles to career advancement for them. The nature of the obstacles blocking womens progress to higher management varies, however, from those encountered at lower levels. Hi gher ranking female bank managers seem to experience discrimination to a greater extent, both on terms of structural and cultural barriers, where insufficient personal contacts and dominance of male values adversely affect their advancement.The difficulties women face in reaching the top is also reflected in the higher levels of education and effort often demanded of them. The hurdles facing women aspiring to management jobs can be so formidable that they sometimes abandon efforts to make it to the top of large firms. They often take their energy and know-how to smaller and more flexible companies or set up their own businesses.Another principal constraint on the level and type of labour market participation of women is the responsibility they carry for raising children and performing household tasks. An important feature of professional and especially managerial work is the extended working hours that seem to be required to gain recognition and eventual promotion. It can be practic ally impossible to reconcile the long hours often required of management staff with the amount of time needed to care for a home and children, not to mention care of the elderly. Yet the availability of part-time managerial work varies across organisations. Women who desire both a family and a career often juggle heavy responsibilities in both domains. Those who opt for part-time work early in their careers may find their advancement hampered, even after a return to full-time employment, since their male counterparts will have invested heavily in career building during the same period.4.2 Why so few women reaching the top?Few women gain access to the highest positions as executive heads of organizations and, despite some improvements, many would claim that the pace of change is still far too slow given the large number of qualified women in the labour market today. Where figures are available (ILO data, 2002), they show women holding from 1 present to 5percent of top executive posit ions. While it must be acknowledged that time is still needed for women at junior and middle management levels(those in the pipeline) to move into executive positions, the fact still remains that women are not moving quickly enough nor insufficient numbers into line or strategic positions.Yet this factories crucial for enlarging the pool of women aspiring to senior positions and for building a critical mass of senior women for networking and providing role models for those down the line. Speeding up womens movement towards the top requires that recruitment and promotion methods be objective and fair. Above all, there has to be awareness and commitment from directors of companies as to the benefits for their organizations from promoting women to high-level managerial positions. Women seem to experience the most difficulty in obtaining executive jobs in large corporations, even though they often have greater opportunities at junior and middle management levels in these same corporatio ns.Another reason for this purge is the educational attainment required for top management positions. Evidence provided byte Equal opportunities Commission in the United Kingdom suggest that, in some cases women do not have the educational qualifications to get into management positions, and even when that is not the case, they still do find it hard to break into management, due to the fact that its predominantly male dominated. Another reason is that few senior women are in the so called line positions that involve profit and loss or revenue generating responsibilities, and which are critical for advancement to the highest level. Additionally, in the United Kingdom, the share of women among financial managers rose from 11 present to 17percent in the 1980s and still increasing, although they are still outnumbered by men in top management positions in the 21st century.4.3 Why are women workers still going cheap?Much of womens work has historically tended to be undervalued or unrecogn ized. While the United Nations system and governments are making more systematic efforts to value and account for womens work in national statistics, research on women in management is a relatively new field and comparisons over time and across countries are limited. This is further made complicated by the range of definitions employed and the non-availability of statistics for different countries overtime. Under a report provided by the United Nations in 1996 called the Human development report, it states that no society treats its women as well as men.A gender related development index was created to record achievements and monitor progress. This is based on life expectancy, educational attainment and income, but adjusts the latter mentioned for gender equality. They noted that life expectancy rates are positively affected by care in different forms, such as social support and social relationships. For example, unmarried adults have higher mortality rates than married ones and, ac cording to them, children in a caring environment fare better in terms of health than those who lack this attention. It is not only the weak and sick that need care to prosper even the healthiest of adults need a certain amount of care.A deficit in care services not only destroys human development, but it also undermines economic growth. That these factors are overlooked has considerable implications for gender equality, as women still carry the main responsibility for care. Gender discrimination is perpetuated through the lack of value placed on womens caring role in society. As managers, women are affected byte common assumption that in the event of building families they will bear the main burden of responsibility arising out of this. Thus, there is not the same degree of investment in women. They are less likely to receive the same encouragement or career advice through mentoring as men.Another important factor is that in some countries equal opportunity policies tend to be esta blished within organizations, however, in some countries they are not strictly adhered to. In the Ukase scheme known as Opportunity 2000 was launched in 2000. Its member included 300 organizations ranging from the financial services to the educational departments. They agreed to increase the number of women into management positions, and between 1994 to 2000, womens share of management positions increased from 25 present to 35 present. Therefore, one can say although women are still going cheap in certain jobs in other parts of the world this is not the case universally.4.4 What causes the gender pay gap?A difference in management positions does tend to contribute to earnings differentials. Although rates of pay may be similar, actual earnings can vary because of the different salary packages offered to managers, which provide various fringe benefits and access to certain schemes for boosting bonuses. Earnings gaps may also reflect differences in seniority and concentration of women in low-paid managerial sub-groups. Additionally, certain jobs tend to be affiliated with men and to women, i.e. productions and manufacturing jobs tend to be affiliated with men, while nursing, and household jobs tend to be affiliated with women, this contributes to the pay gap between men and women.Within the Banking sector in the United Kingdom, there has been an increase of the number of women into both middle and top management. However, the positions they tend to head are not profit-making positions or revenue generating positions, which are positions of higher pay and responsibility. They tend to be based within the retail, customer services, and bookkeeping departments, which are areas of significance to the organization, but are of less repute.4.5 Have women achieved equality in the UK banking industry?In the area of finance, women have certainly increased their share of management positions, although at a varying pace. In the United Kingdom, the share of women among financ ial managers rose from 11 present to 17 present during the 1980s and at the turn of the century increased to 25 present. While women have captured an ever-increasing share of the labour market, improvements in the quality of womens jobs have not kept pace. This is reflected in the smaller representation of women in management positions, particularly in the private sector, and their virtual absence from most senior jobs, i.e. Directorships, or Presidents of Banks.Wage differentials in male and female managerial jobs stem from the reality that even when women hold management jobs, they are often in less strategic lower-paying areas oaf companys operations. They are also linked to the fact that women managers tend to be younger on average, as most senior jobs tend to be dominated by older men. Despite the persistent inequalities at managerial level, the continuous entry of women into higher-level jobs is being addressed however, they still remain under-represented in senior management. With few exceptions, the main challenge appears tube the sheer slowness in the in the progress of women into senior leadership positions in organizations, which suggests that discrimination is greatest where the most power is exercised. However, the growth in entrepreneurship and increasing numbers of women running their own businesses, both large and small, heralds a different future for societies. The economic power gained by women will play a key role in the struggle to sweep aside gender inequalities in all walks of life in which the UK banking sector is no exception.Chapter 5 Empirical AnalysisIn this chapter I present (3)case descriptions from my research on Women in management within the Banking Sector. The descriptions are organised in terms of the following headings Continuity and Change in Womens twentieth century in comparison to now experience, the position of women in the financial industry in general, the position of women in the UK banking sector, the changing role of women in the UK banking sector, pay differentials, women broken through glass ceiling, employment law and maternity right, and balancing work and family responsibilities. Due to the short timespan to collect data and incorporate to this paper I have been limited to three UK high street banks.The names of the individuals interviewed are not mentioned to protect confidentiality. It must be said that there are some differences in the both the quality and quantity of data available between the cases described, but in each case there is sufficient data for comparability across the features mentioned above. Women managers or the most senior of positions with regard to women in the three high street banks are analysed to address the issue of women in management. See Appendix A for the questions used. All interviews lasted approximately 40 minutes.5.1 Case Study 1 Natwest BankContinuity and Change in Womens twentieth century in comparison to now experienceThe Woman interviewed was the mana ger of the branch. She is responsible for 25 people in the branch. She argues that in the past there were no female managers, most women, were household wives and lacked career progression. She believes that a lot has changed over the past 20 years and that within the bank a lot of progress has been made with regard to women into management positions. Additionally, she states that there is a continuing need to have women in management positions because it depicts the bank as being an equal opportunities bank.The position of women in the financial industry in generalShe argues that they are a lot more women in Finance ministries, central banks, and banking supervisory agencies, which are among the most important political institutions with regard to the coordination and regulation of the financial system than the case maybe in the past.The position of women in UK banking sectorShe states that although there has been a huge increase in the number of women in management positions withi n the bank, relative to male managers, it is small percentage that are in this category compared to over 50 years ago.The changing role of women in the UK banking sectorShe believes that the role of women in the bank has changed over the years. In the past women within the bank were more concentrated in the retail department, but more and more women are going into the trading of stocks and products which are revenue generating departments within the bank.Pay DifferentialShe states categorically, that she is quite happy and content with how much she is being paid and comparing herself to her male counterpart sat other branches of the bank, there isnt a difference with regard other pay package (its the same).Women broken through glass ceilingShe believes that within NatWest bank the case of women breaking through the glass ceiling is not an issue. As far as she is concerned if you have the right qualifications and attributes, you will make it through regardless of gender differences.E mployment law and Maternity rightShe argues that there are policies within the bank that ensures equal opportunities for both male and female employees to get into top management. And that women are encouraged to take maternity leave if needs be, and when they are ready to come back to their previous position the job would still be there. Flexible part-time work is available for those who fall under this category she says.Balancing work and FamilyFor the hours she works, it could affect family life being the manager of the branch, however, for the top directors within the bank the want staff to have a good work and family life balance. They do encourage women, if they need to go out on maternity leave and come back to their previous job.5.2 Case Study 2 Hong-Kong and Shanghai Banking CorporationContinuity and Change in Womens twentieth century in comparison to now experienceThe Woman interviewed was the branch counsellor (Customer services/accounts) she is the most senior woman (ret ail). She is responsible for 5 people. She argues that in the Bank there were few female managers compared to their male counterparts. Although she believes a lot has changed over the years with regard to women getting into management positions, she states that due to the lack of proper qualifications and starting a family, women have not in general been able to move into management positions.The position of women in financial industry in generalShe argues that there are not enough women in the financial industry. She acknowledges that there have been improvements but that there is still barrier.The position of women in the UK banking sectorShe believes that only the determined ones (women) get through. However, from heron knowledge of the bank, there are not a lot of women in top management positions.The changing role of women in the UK banking sectorThe branch counsellor states that when a woman says she works in a bank it would be depicted that she works as a secretary. This is d ue to the lack of qualifications and top management being male dominated, the role of women within the bank has remained static.Pay DifferentialShe states that there are certain grades within the bank and each and every person is categorised into one of those grades. The salary band is applied in that manner. She states that for the job responsibilities, she is quite content and happy with what she is being paid, however there is still need for improvement.Women broken through glass ceilingShe argues that there is a glass ceiling within the bank and women can only go so far. She adds that women tend to leave to have children and look after the home. Also, she says that there are gender diversity policies within the bank, but they are not adhered to from top management.Employment law and maternity rightWithin the bank there is policy that allows for part-time flexible work patterns. Legally, they have to keep the position for you, if for example you left to have baby.

Historical Background To Animal Farm :: Animal Farm Essays

Karl Marx was a German scholar who lived in the nineteenth century. He spent most of his life studying, thinking and writing about history and economics. A many years of study, much of it spent in England, he believed that he understood more deeply than anyone who had ever lived before him why there is in umpire in the world.He utter that all injustice and inequality is a dissolvent of one underlying conflict in society. He called it a class struggle, that is, a conflict bet the class of heap who can afford to own money- producing businesses, whom he called capitalists or the bourgeosie, and the class of people who do not surplus money to buy businesses and who are therefore forced to work for wage whom he called workers.Marx said that, because it was always in the economic interest of capita to take advantage of or exploit workers, nothing could persuade capitalists change their ways. In other words, peaceful progess toward equality and socia justice was impossible. The only way to establish justice, he said, was for t workers to overthrow the capitalists by means of violent revolution. He urged workers around the world to revolt against their rulers. "Workers of the worl unite" he wrote. "You have nothing to lose but your chains."Another thing Marx taught was that organized religion, the churches, help capitalists to keep the workers quiet and obedient. Religion, according to Mar the opiate of the masses. The church tells working people to forget about th injustice they meet in their lives and to think instead of how wonderful it wi in the after- life when they go to heaven.Marx, with his colleague, Engels, spread his ideas in ii famous books, Capital and The Communist Manifesto.In the early years of the twentieth century, Russia was ready for the ide Marx. The Russian people were extremely discontented with their ruler, Tsar Nicholas II, who had little interest in regime and was neglecting the count badly. Making conditions even more mi serable for the people were the hardships the First World War and a particularly cold winter.By 1917, the Russian people were dread(a) enough to accept a revolution. fact, they got two for the price of one, the first in March when the Tsar was deposed and a provisional government was set up. Then in November a political called the Bolsheviks led a further rebellion which ousted the provisional government.

The Coal Miners in France During the Second Empire Essay -- World Hist

The Coal Miners in France During the Second Empire In this paper I will explain why revolt by the labor against capitalin Second Empire France failed. To explain the military position, I will useMarxs possibility of capital accumulation as he presents it in Capital. Alsoimportant in the theoretical description of this phenomena is the role oftradition and the way its restraints influence from those of the economy inthis French society. Based on this description I will discuss how thefunction of management is enforced by the economy and traditions built-inin a society. From these considerations I will suggest additional elementsand relationships necessary for social relations change to transcend theinstitutional conditions in which they exist. Terminology relevent to a theoretical account of an event is given byTalcott Parsons in The Structure of Social Action. Here, action isdescribed as a system that whitethorn be divided into unit acts. The unit actconsists of four e lements. First there is an agent, or actor. Second, theact has an end which is a future state of personal matters or goal towards which theaction is oriented. Third, there is a situation where the trends ofdevelop- ment differ from the end towards which the action is oriented. Thesituation is composed of two elements the conditions are that which theactor cannot ensure in accordance with his end, and the means are thatover which he does not have control. Finally there is a relation betweenthese elements where a situation allows alterna- tive means to the end,the course is selected from the normative orientation of the actor.(Parsons, 1968 44) In order to account for the interrelationships in the historical event... ... change. Events willsubsequently no longer take chances but attain meaning in the light of the sourcethat the charismatic element advocates. This change in normativeorientations relative to the change in separate elements of the process mustbe reflected in the ideology. The ideology of social change may not simplybe a reiffication of the old in a reactionary form. The substance of theideology, in being a response to the divergence caused by the economy andpolity, must be such as to transcend that which came in the lead it. This finalcondition, specifying the relations between elements necessary forrevolutionary change, may only be derived in a society which is neither anorganic, composite whole nor atomic number 53 of random atomistic ends. Rather, thesociety must be one where the normative orientation for mediating betweenconditions and means is one of consensus.